Foreword xvii
Acknowledgments xix
Editor’s Note xxi

1 Firearms and Ammunition 1

Small Arms 1
Handguns 1
Single-Shot Pistols 1
Derringers 1
Revolvers 1
Autoloading Pistols (Automatics) 4
Rifles 9
Assault Rifles 9
Shotguns 11
Submachine Guns/Machine Pistols 11
Machine Guns 12
Personal Defense Weapons 12
Caliber Nomenclature for Rifled Weapons 12
Ammunition 14
Cartridge Cases 14
Head Stamps 16
Primers 17
Propellants 18
Bullets 21
Lead Bullets 22
Jacketed Bullets 23
Lead-Free Ammunition 24
Frangible Rounds 24
Caseless Ammunition 25
Flint and Percussion Weapons 25
Civilian Firearms in the United States 26
Right-to-Carry Permits 27
Source of Firearms Used by Criminals 28
References 28
General References 28

2 Forensic Aspects of Ballistics 29

Class and Individual Characteristics of Bullets 32
Comparison of Bullets 32
Cartridge Cases 35
National Integrated Ballistic Information Network 37
Base Markings on Bullets 37
Examination of Bullets for Tissue and Foreign Material 39
DNA Typing of Tissue on Bullets and Cartridge Cases 40
Fingerprints and Examination of Firearms for DNA 40
Black Powder Firearms 41
Discharge of a Firearm 42
Hang Fires–Misfires 45
References 45
General References 46

3 Wound Ballistics 47

Theory of Wounding 47
Wounding Characteristics of Handgun and Rifle Bullets 51
Handgun Bullets 51
Centerfire Rifle Bullets 52
References 55
General References 55

4 Introduction to the Classification of Gunshot Wounds 57

Contact Wounds 57
Hard-Contact Wounds 57
Loose-Contact Wounds 57
Angled-Contact Wounds 58
Incomplete-Contact Wounds 60
Near-Contact Wounds 60
Near-Contact Angled Wounds 61
Intermediate-Range Wounds 62
Angled Intermediate Gunshot Wounds 65
Distant Gunshot Wounds 65
Soot 65
Cylinder Gap 66
Silencers: Sound Suppressors 67
Muzzle Brakes/Compensators 69
Flash Suppressors 69
Gas Ports/Vents 71
Miscellaneous Powder Patterns 72
Entrance Wounds 72
Entrance versus Exit 77
Wounds of the Palm and Soles 78
Microtears 78
Distant Range Stellate Wounds of the Head 80
Microscopic Examination of Gunshot Wounds 80
Fate of Tissue from Entrance and Exit Defects 82
Exit Wounds 82
Graze/Tangential/Superficial Perforating Entrance Wounds 86
Reentry Wounds 86
Intermediary Targets 89
Stippling: Powder Tattooing and Pseudopowder Tattooing 91
Pseudosoot 93
Ricochet Bullets 95
Bone 99
Atypical Bullet Wounds of the Skull 102
Gutter Wounds 102
Keyhole Entrance Wound of Bone 102
Nonpenetrating Fatal Cranial Cavity Wounds 103
Intracranial Pressure Waves and Secondary Fractures of the Skull 103
Pseudoexit Wounds 104
Caliber Determination from Entrance Wounds in Skin and Bone 104
Bullet Wipe 105
Backspatter 105
Gunshots through Glass 106
References 107

5 Wounds due to Handguns 109

Handgun Wounds 109
Contact Wounds 109
Near-Contact Wounds 117
Gas Injuries 117
Intermediate-Range Wounds 118
Cylinder Gap 126
Distant Wounds 126
Timed Test Firings 127
Muzzle Velocity of Saturday Night Specials 127
Addendum: Centerfire Handgun Cartridges 127
.25 ACP (6.35 × 16) 128
.32 ACP (7.65 × 17SR) 128
.32 Smith & Wesson and .32 Smith & Wesson Long 128
.38 Smith & Wesson (9 × 20R) 128
.38 Special 129
.357 Magnum 129
.357 Sig 129
.380 ACP (9 × 17 mm, 9 mm Kurz, 9 mm Corto, 9 mm Browning Short) 129
9 × 18 mm Makarov 129
.38 Colt Super Auto (9 × 23SR) 130
9 mm Luger (9 mm Parabellum; 9 × 19 mm) 130
.40 Smith & Wesson 130
.45 ACP (11.43 × 23) 130
.44 Smith & Wesson Magnum 130
References 131

6 Wounds from Rimfire Firearms 133

.22 Magnum 133
.22 Short, Long, and Long Rifle Cartridges 134
.22 Ammunition 136
.22 Short Cartridge 136
.22 Long Ammunition 137
.22 Long Rifle Ammunition 137
Hyper-Velocity .22s 137
Miscellaneous .22 Rimfire Ammunition 138
Segmented Hollow-Point Bullets 138
Subsonic Ammunition 138
Shot Cartridges 138
BB and CB Caps 138
.22 Blanks 138
Frangible Rimfire Ammunition 138
Electroplated CCI Rimfire Ammunition 139
Lead-Free .22 Rimfire Ammunition 139
.177 Rimfire Ammunition 139
Wounds due to Rimfire Ammunition 140
Contact Wounds .22 Short 140
Contact Wounds with .22 Long Rifle and .22 Magnum Cartridges 140
Intermediate-Range Wounds: .22 Short, Long, and Long Rifle and
Magnum 141
Distant Wounds: .22 Short, Long, and Long Rifle 143
References 143
General References 143

7 Wounds from Centerfire Rifles 145

Muskets 145
Breech-Loading Rifles 147
Smokeless Powder and Modern Ammunition 147
History of the Intermediate Rifle Cartridges 150
Theory of Wounding 151
Centerfire Rifle Bullets 152
Centerfire Rifle Wounds 157
Contact Wounds of the Head 157
Contact Wounds of the Chest and Abdomen 158
Intermediate-Range and Distant Wounds 160
Powder Tattooing 161
Muzzle Brake/Compensator 165
X-Rays 165
Perforating Tendency of Centerfire Rifle Bullets 166
Intermediary Targets 166
Soot-Like Residues: Pseudo-Soot 168
Assault Rifles 169
AK-47 Round: 7.62 × 39 mm 172
Miscellaneous Military Ammunition 173
7.92 × 33 mm 173
7.62 × 51 mm FMJ 174
7.62 × 54 mm R (Rimmed Case) 174
Military Ammunition Converted to Sporting Ammunition 174
Addendum: Common American Rifle Calibers 174
5.56 × 45 mm (.223) 175
5.45 × 39 175
243 Winchester (6.16 × 51 mm) 175
.270 Winchester 175
7 mm Magnum 175
7.62 × 39 175
.30 M-1 Carbine (7.62 × 33 mm) 176
.30-30 Winchester 176
.30-06 Springfield (7.62 × 63 mm) 176
.308 Winchester (7.62 × 51 mm) 176
7.62 × 54R (7.62 mm Mosin–Nagant) 176
References 177
General Reference 177

8 Wounds from Shotguns 179

Shotgun Ammunition 181
Shot 189
Birdshot–Buckshot 191
Birdshot 192
Buckshot Ammunition 192
Shotgun Slugs 196
Wound Ballistics of the Shotgun 198
Shotgun Wounds 199
General Discussion 199
Wounds due to Slugs 199
Contact Wounds of the Head 201
Intermediate- and Close-Range Wounds of the Head 206
Contact Wounds of the Trunk 206
Intermediate-Range Wounds of the Body 209
Distant Wounds 209
Wounds from Buckshot 215
Miscellaneous Observations 217
Mobility Following Shotgun Wound 217
Muzzle Break–Compensator 217
Pseudopetal Marks 218
Pellet Holes in Window Screens 218
Sawed-Off Shotguns 219
Shotgun Diverters 219
Automatic Ejection of Fired Hulls 220
Shotgun Ammunition Manufacturers 220
Miscellaneous Shotgun Ammunition 220
Shotgun Ammunition Loaded with Material other than Pellets or Slug 223
Taurus Judge 223
References 223

9 Bloody Bodies and Bloody Scenes 225

Physical Activity Following Gunshot Wounds 225
Exsanguination 227
Wounds Seen in the Emergency Room 228
Minimal Velocities Necessary to Perforate Skin 229
Bullet Emboli 231
Gunshot Wounds of the Brain 233
Bone Chips 233
Secondary Fractures of the Skull 233
Shape of the Bullet Tracks 233
Point of Lodgment of the Bullet 234
Intrauterine Gunshot Wounds 235
Lead Poisoning from Retained Bullets 236
Location of Fatal Gunshot Wounds 237
Behavior of Ammunition and Gunpowder in Fires 238
Blunt Force Injuries from Firearms 239
Multiple Gunshot Wounds through One Entrance 240
Falling Bullets 241
Reaction–Response Times in Handgun Shootings 241
Nonlethal/Less-Lethal Ballistic Weapons 243
References 243

10 Weapons and Ammunition: Miscellaneous 245

Air/Nonpowder Guns 245
Paintballs 249
Zip Guns 250
Nail Guns and Powder-Actuated Tools 251
Captive Bolt Devices (Pistols) 252
Bang Stick, Power Head, or Shark Stick 253
Sympathetic Discharge of Rimfire Firearms 253
Bullets without Rifling Marks 255
Elongated Bullets 256
Cast Bullets 256
Sabot Ammunition 257
Tandem Bullets 258
Handgun Ammunition 259
Hollow-Point Design 260
Silvertip® Handgun Ammunition 260
Black Talon® 260
Supreme® SXT® 261
Hydra-Shok® 261
Glaser Ammunition 261
FlexLock® Bullets 262
Exploding Ammunition 262
NYCLAD® Revolver Cartridges 264
Blitz-Action-Trauma Bullet 264
Multiple Bullet Loadings 265
Lead-Free Ammunition 265
KTW and Its Legacy 266
Handgun Shot Cartridges 267
Plastic Training Ammunition 268
Flechettes 269
Rubber and Plastic Bullets 269
Blank Cartridge Injuries 270
Interchangeability of Ammunition in Weapons 272
Markings and Foreign Material on Bullets 274
Effect of Environmental Temperature on Bullet Velocity 275
References 275

11 X-Rays 277

Virtual Autopsy: Virtopsy® 285
References 285

12 Detection of Gunshot Residues 287

Gunshot Residue 287
Methods of Analyzing Gunshot Residues 289
SEM–EDX 292
Trace Metal Detection Technique 294
Gunshot Wounds through Clothing 295
Bullet Wipe 297
Analytical Examination of Clothing for Range Determination 298
Modified Griess Test 298
Sodium Rhodizonate Test 299
Dithiooxamide Test 299
EDX for Examination of Clothes 299
Fiber Examination of Clothing for the Direction of Fire 300
Range Determination in Decomposed Bodies 300
References 302

13 Correct Handling of Deaths from Firearms 305
Autopsy Report 308
Who Should Perform the Autopsy? 311
Reference 311

14 Suicide by Firearms 313

Suicide by Firearms 313
Handguns 316
Suicides due to Long Arms 319
Shotguns 320
Centerfire Rifles 321
Gunshot Wound Suicides: Miscellaneous 321
Multiple Gunshot Wound Suicides 321
Suicidal Gunshot Wound Combined with Other Methods 322
Suicide Scenes 323
One Shot Suicide Homicide 323
Objections to Suicide Ruling 323
Movement of Firearms at the Scene 323
Guns Found in the Hand 323
Backspatter (Blow Back) on the Hands of Shooters in Cases of Suicide 325
Backspatter (Blow Back) on Weapons in Cases of Contact Wounds 325
“Russian Roulette” 326
Homicide versus Suicide: “Suicide by Cop” 326
Accidental Deaths from Firearms 328
Rifles and Shotguns 332
Slam-Fires 333
More Guns: More Accidents, Homicides, and Suicides? 333
References 334

Appendix A: Stopping Power and Hollow-Point Pistol
Ammunition 335
Appendix B: Forensic Autopsy in Gunshot Wound Cases 339
Index 345